Abstract

The problem of English plurals

The use of English plurals in synthetic sentences is a case in point. In computing applications, for example, it is quite common to encounter error messages which jar because they do not correctly inflect for grammatical number:

        Compilation aborted: 1 errors were detected.

        print "Compilation aborted: $count ",
              ($count==1 ? "error was" : "errors were"),
              " detected.\n";

        Her criterion differs from mine.
        The Major General met the Governor General.
        Analysis of this aquarium's fish failed to determine its genus.
        That phalanx suffered a trauma.

Coping with English plurals in synthetic text

Ignoring the problem

One might argue that this approach is economically rational, in that the extra cost and complexity involved in identifying and coding around that one special case outweighs the benefit of correctly handling it. This, of course, is the perennial excuse for ugly and ungainly interfaces, and quite unassailable in the estimation of the utilitarian mind.

Avoiding the problem

        Number of errors: 1
        Number of errors: 10

        1 error(s) found.
        10 error(s) found.

A "manual" scheme

        sub select_pl($$)
        {
                my ($word, $count) = @_;
                $word =~ s#\(([^)/]*)/([^)]*)\)# $count==1 ? $1 : $2 #ge;
                return $word
        }

        print select_pl("$count error(/s) (was/were) found", $count);

Pluralizing algorithms

More complex algorithms that cope with specific suffixes (-ss -> -sses, -y -> -ies, etc.) can be specified, but pure suffix-based approaches will still be prone to exceptions and meta-exceptions. For example: -y becomes -ies, except after a vowel (when it becomes -ys), except for soliloquy (which uses -ies).

A usable pluralization algorithm must therefore cope with three categories of plural formation: universal defaults, general suffix-based rules, and specific exceptional cases. The following section examines each of these categories in more detail.

Categories of English plurals

Universal rules

The rules themselves are well-known and need no elaboration. By default:

• Nouns are made plural by appending -s.
• Verbs are made plural by removing any trailing -s (and otherwise do not change).
• Adjectives and adverbs do not change when made plural.

Suffix categories

Certain types of adjectives also inflect in this way. For example, possessive adjectives that end in -'s or -' in the singular are made plural by forming the plural of the root word and appending an apostrophe (unless the root's plural does not itself end in -s, in which case -'s is appended). Hence cat's becomes cats',  axis' becomes axes', whilst child's becomes children's.

Other suffix categories arise because words of foreign origin (most commonly Ancient Greek or Latin) have retained a non-anglicized plural inflection. Hence criterion becomes criteria, nucleus becomes nuclei, and matrix becomes matrices. Dealing with such categories is complicated by the fact that many other imports have been wholly or partially anglicized. Hence although criterion always forms its plural with -a, ganglion may take either -s or -a (ganglions or ganglia), whilst bastion is always inflected with -s. Occasionally the anglicized and "classical" plural forms of a word may both be in common use, but with distinct meanings. Thus a copy-editor might remove appendices, whereas a surgeon would remove appendixes.

The correct inflection of words derived from Latin can be particularly complex, since the same suffix may form different Latinate plurals depending on the declension (or sometimes the part of speech) of the original. Thus the plural of stimulus (second declension) is stimuli, and that of genus (third declension) is genera. Status (fourth declension) is traditionally unchanged in the plural, whilst ignoramus (a first person plural Latin verb) has been wholly anglicized and becomes ignoramuses.

The only practical way to deal with such complexities in an algorithm is to categorize words by both suffix and inflection, and to allow for both anglicized and classical variants. Table 1 illustrates such categories.
 

General and user-defined exceptions

This table is surprisingly comprehensive, though certainly not exhaustive. Indeed, specific dialects of English may define much larger sets of irregular plurals and may not recognize some of the entries in Table 2. Hence it is important that any algorithmic approach to pluralization be both extensible and adjustable, so that its output may be easily expanded or trimmed for a specific audience.

A pluralizing algorithm for English

The algorithms are based on the rules of English inflection described in the Oxford English Dictionary [5] (OED), Fowler's Modern English Usage [6], and A Practical English Grammar [1] . Where these sources disagree, the OED is taken to be definitive.

A note about user-defined inflections

        VAX -> VAXen

        (.*)x -> $1xen

        (.*)x -> $1xen
        fox -> foxes

        (.*)x -> $1xes | $1xen
        fox -> foxes
        ox -> oxen

Nomenclature

suffix(<suffix>)

This predicate returns true if the word being inflected ends in<suffix>. Note that standard regular expression conventions are used after the "-" that introduces the suffix.


 

category(<singular suffix>,<plural suffix>)

This predicate returns true if the word being inflected belongs to the set of English words whose suffixes inflect from <singular suffix> to <plural suffix> when pluralized.


 

inflection(<singular suffix>,<plural suffix>)

This function returns the word being inflected, after replacing its current suffix (which must be <singular suffix> ) with the suffix <plural suffix> .


 

stem(<suffix>)

This function removes the specified suffix (<suffix>) from the word being inflected and returns the remaining stem. If the word does not originally end in the specified suffix, a special "undefined" value is returned.


 

"the (user-)specified plural form"

This phrase is used whenever a word has been found to belong to an enumerated category. The "specified plural form" is the appropriate anglicized or classical plural form of the word, as it appears in the category table.

An algorithm for forming plural nouns

An algorithm for forming plural verbs

An algorithm for forming plural adjectives

A unified algorithm

Note that this sequence represents a particular compromise in the face of inherently ambiguous input. Other compromises (which might perhaps more heavily favour the verb sense of a word) may also be defined, by selecting different subsets of the three algorithms or by changing the order in which the various subsets are used.

Issues and limitations

Homographs of heterogeneous case

        It ate it  ->  They ate them

Of course, where the necessary context is already provided (for example, when forming the plural of a dative or ablative: to it, from it, with it, etc.), the noun algorithm detects this (in step 3) and correctly returns the accusative plural form: to them, from them, with them, etc.)

Homographs of heterogeneous person

However, if a verb were to take common singular forms but different plurals (for example, the atrophying British usage: I will -> you shall, you will -> you will), then the algorithms presented above would be unable to determine the correct inflection without additional context (such as an extra "person" parameter).

The author is not currently aware of any other verbs in English which present this problem, but is not willing to assume ipso facto that none exist.

Other homographs with heterogeneous plurals

        I put the mice next to the cheese.
        I put the mouses next to the keyboards.

        Three basses were stolen from the band's trailer.
        Three bass were stolen from the band's fishpond.

        Several thoughts about leaving crossed my mind.
        Several thought about leaving across my lawn.

• If both meanings of the word are the same part of speech (for example, bass is a noun in both sentences above), then one meaning is chosen as the "usual" meaning, and only that meaning's plural is ever returned by any of the inflection subroutines.
• If each meaning of the word is a different part of speech (for example, thought is used as both a noun and a verb), then the noun's plural is returned by the noun and unified algorithms, and the verb's plural is returned only by the verb algorithm.

Finally, if the choice of a particular "usual inflection" is considered inappropriate for a particular application, it can always be changed by specifying an overriding user-defined inflection.

"Number-insensitive" comparisons

The need for "number-insensitive" comparisons

Child

An accident to the occurrence of which all the forces and arrangements of nature are specially devised and accurately adapted.

Genius

Any degree of mental superiority that enables its possessor to live acceptably upon his admirers, and without blame be unbrokenly drunk.

Self

The most important person in the universe.

An algorithm

• the two words are identical, or
• one word is a plural form of the other, or
• the two words are distinct plural forms of some other word.

Note that, because steps 2 and 3 do not specify which pluralizing algorithm is used, Algorithm 5 is generic and may be readily adapted to deal with only nouns, verbs, or adjectives, or with all three at once. Such adaptations merely involve selecting the appropriate algorithm (Algorithms 1 through 4 respectively) with which to generate the "appropriate plural" forms. Where the algorithm is adapted to a particular part of speech, one or both of steps 4 and 5 may be omitted entirely, if inappropriate.

A Perl implementation

The exportable subroutines of Lingua::EN::Inflect provide plural inflections for English words. Plural forms of most nouns, many verbs, and some adjectives are provided. Where appropriate, "classical" variants are also provided. The module also offers pronunciation-based selection of indefinite articles (a and an), but discussion of those facilities is beyond the scope of this paper.

Inflecting plurals - the PL_...() subroutines

The PL_...() subroutines also take an optional second argument, which indicates the desired grammatical number of the word. If the "number" argument is supplied and is not 1 (or "one" or "a"), the plural form of the word is returned. If the "number" argument does indicate singularity, the (uninflected) word itself is returned. If the number argument is omitted, the plural form is returned unconditionally.

The various subroutines are:

PL_N($;$)

PL_N() takes a singular English noun or pronoun and returns its plural.

 

PL_V($;$)

PL_V() takes the singular form of a conjugated verb (one which is already in the correct grammatical person and mood) and returns the corresponding plural conjugation.

 

PL_ADJ($;$)

PL_ADJ() takes the singular form of certain types of adjectives and returns the corresponding plural form.

 

PL($;$)

PL() takes a singular English noun, pronoun, verb, or adjective and returns its plural form. Where a word has more than one inflection depending on its sense, the (singular) noun sense is generally preferred to the (singular) verb sense. Of course, the inherent ambiguity of such cases suggests that, where the part of speech is known, PL_N(), PL_V(), and PL_ADJ() should be used in preference to PL().

Modern vs classical inflections

In classical mode, the non-anglicized plural form of a word (if one exists) is preferred.
Hence, whereas dogma is normally inflected to dogmas, if classical mode is active it becomes dogmata.

User-defined inflections - the def_...() subroutines

def_noun($$)

The def_noun() subroutine takes a pair of string arguments: the singular and plural forms of the noun being specified. The singular form specifies a pattern to be interpolated (as m/^(?:$first_arg)$/i). Any noun matching this pattern is then replaced by the string in the second argument. The second argument specifies a string which is interpolated after the match succeeds, and is then used as the plural form. The second argument string may also specify a second variant of the plural form, to be used when "classical" plurals have been requested. The beginning of the second variant is marked by a '|' character:

                def_noun  'cow'     =>  'cows|kine';
                def_noun  '(.+i)o'  =>  '$1os|$1i';

If no classical variant is given, the same plural form is used in both normal and "classical" modes. If the second argument is undef instead of a string, then the current user definition for the first argument is removed, and the standard (algorithmic) plural inflection is reinstated.

 

def_verb($$$$$$)

The def_verb() subroutine takes three pairs of string arguments (that is, six arguments in total), specifying the singular and plural forms of the three grammatical persons of verb. As with def_noun(), the singular forms are specifications of run-time-interpolated patterns, while the plural forms are specifications of (up to two) run-time-interpolated strings:

                def_verb 'am'       => 'are',
                         'ar(e|t)'  => 'are",
                         'is'       => 'are';

def_adj($$)

The def_adj() subroutine takes a pair of string arguments, which specify the singular and plural forms of the adjective being defined. As with def_noun() and def_verb(), the singular forms are specifications of run-time-interpolated patterns, whilst the plural forms are specifications of (up to two) run-time-interpolated strings:

                def_adj  'dat' => 'dose';
                def_adj  'red' => 'red|gules';

Numbered plurals - the NO() subroutine

        print "I saw $N ", PL_N($animal,$N), "\n";

        print "I saw ", NO($animal,$N), "\n";

        I saw no ducks

        I saw 0 ducks

Reducing the number of counts required - the NUM() subroutine

        print PL_ADJ("This",$errors), PL_N(" error",$errors),
              PL_V(" was",$errors), " fatal.\n";

        NUM($errors);   # SET DEFAULT NUMBER
        print PL_ADJ("This"), PL_N(" error"), PL_V(" was"), "fatal.\n";
        NUM();          # CLEAR DEFAULT NUMBER

        print NUM($errors), PL_N(" error"), PL_V(" was"), " detected.\n"
        print PL_ADJ("This"), PL_N(" error"), PL_V(" was"), "fatal.\n"
                if $severity > 1;

Interpolating inflections in strings - The inflect() subroutine

To ameliorate this problem, Lingua::EN::Inflect provides an exportable string-interpolating subroutine (inflect($)), that recognizes calls to the various inflection subroutines within a string and interpolates them appropriately. Using inflect() plurals can be interpolated directly into a string as follows:

        NUM($errors);
        print inflect "NO(error) PL_V(was) detected.\n";
        print inflect "PL_ADJ(This) PL_N(error) PL_V(was) fatal.\n"
                if $errors && $severity > 1;

Comparing "number-insensitively" - The PL_..._eq() subroutines

The actual value returned by the various PL_eq_...() subroutines encodes which of the three equality rules succeeded: "eq" is returned if the strings were identical, "s:p" if the strings were singular and plural respectively, "p:s" for plural and singular, and "p:p" for two distinct plurals. Inequality is indicated by returning an empty string.

Conclusion

It is possible to cater for differences in major usage patterns (for example, modern and classical inflections) and for local differences in dialect (via user-defined inflections). It is also possible to make use of the pluralization algorithms to efficiently detect pairs of words which differ only in grammatical number.

A free implementation of these algorithms is available, and provides additional features such as conditional pluralization (depending on a numerical parameter), setting of default number values, and interpolation of the various subroutines into strings.

References

[1]

Wall, L., Christiansen, T., & Schwartz, R.L., Programming Perl, 2nd Edition, O'Reilly & Associates, 1996.

 

[2]

McCrum, R., Cran, W., & MacNeil, R., The Story of English, Penguin Books, New York, 1986.

 

[3]

Bryson, B., The Mother Tongue: English and how it got that way, William Morrow, New York, 1990.

 

[4]

Thomson, A.J., & Martinet, A.V., A Practical English Grammar, Fourth Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1986.

 

[5]

The Oxford English Dictionary, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1989.

 

[6]

Fowler, H.W., Modern English Usage, Second Edition, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1965.

 

[7]

Bierce, A. The Devil's Dictionary, Doubleday, New York, 1911.

 

Appendix A - Plural categories

Table A.2: Uninflected nouns

Table A.3: Singular nouns ending in a single -s

Table A.4: Sample ambiguous words (nouns or verbs)

Table A.5: Personal pronouns (nominative, accusative, and reflexive)

Table A.6: Possessive pronouns

Table A.7: Personal possessive adjectives

Table A.8: Irregular verbs

Table A.9: Uninflected verbs

Table A.10: -a to -ae

Table A.11: -a to -as (anglicized) or -ae (classical)

Table A.12: -a to -as (anglicized) or -ata (classical)

Table A.13: -en to -ens (anglicized) or -ina (classical)

Table A.14: -ex to -ices

Table A.15: -ex to -exes (anglicized) or -ices (classical)

Table A.16: -is to -ises (anglicized) or -ides (classical)

Table A.17: -o to -os

Table A.18: -o to -os (anglicized) or -i (classical)

Table A.20: -um to -a

Table A.21: -um to -ums (anglicized) or -a (classical)

Table A.22: -us to -uses (anglicized) or -i (classical)

Table A.23: -us to -uses (anglicized) or -us (classical)

Table A.24: - to -i

Table A.25: - to -im

Table A.26: -general to -generals